Mount Semeru
Overview
Malang, East Java
8.108°S
112.922°E
3657 m
11998 ft
Stratovolcano
2024 CE
Literature and Analysis
Eruptive History
Geomorphology
Regional Stratigraphy
Structure
Reference
Eruptive History
2017 Jun 6 – 2021 Dec 4
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2017 Jun 6 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 4 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2017 Jun 7 | Ash Plume | – | 4 | – | A Darwin VAAC ash advisory stated that an ash explosion at 0020 UTC generated a plume that rose 4 km in altitude and drifted 13 km SW a day later. | [1] |
| 2021 Dec 4 | Explosion | – | 4 | – | The Darwin VAAC observed a large ash plume on 4 December 2021 that reached 15.2 km altitude (11.6 km above the summit). | [1] |
2014 Apr 1 – 2017 Jan 9
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2014 Mar 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported 22 incidents of emissions that were white to gray at heights between 100 and 400 m from the summit during March 2014. | [1] |
| 2014 Apr 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported eight explosions during April with gray-to-white emissions rising 300-500 m and drifting W. | [1] |
| 2014 Apr 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported 21 incidents of emissions that were white to gray at heights between 100 and 400 m from the summit. | [1] |
| 2014 Apr 26 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | On 26 April at 1852 and 1934, and on 27 April at 0500, incandescent rockslides from the lava dome traveled as far as 300 m down the S flank. | [1] |
| 2014 Apr 26 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | On 26 April at 1852 and 1934, and on 27 April at 0500, incandescent rockslides from the lava dome traveled as far as 300 m down the S flank. | [1] |
| 2014 Jun 5 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | The thermal anomalies were likely due to the growth of the lava dome. | [1] |
| 2014 Jun 5 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Jun 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Jun 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Jul 1 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery reported a lava flow from the dome in July 2014, noting that it extended a few hundred meters down Kembar ravine on the S flank in early September. | [1] |
| 2014 Jul 4 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Jul 16 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Ten MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Jul 23 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Aug 8 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Sep 1 | Incandescent ejecta | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery observed Strombolian activity in the summit crater. | [1] |
| 2014 Oct 11 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 15 | Incandescent ejecta | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery reported that Strombolian activity ejected bombs up to 100 m above the vent. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 15 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery reported that the lava dome had a diameter of 100-200 m. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Twelve MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Nov 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Dec 7 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Dec 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2014 Dec 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that during January 2015 white plumes and nine instances of grayish-white plumes rose 200-500 m above the crater. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 1 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that during January seven incandescent avalanches from a lava-flow front traveled at most 300 m down the flank. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that during January seven incandescent avalanches from a lava-flow front traveled at most 300 m down the flank. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 3 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 15 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MOVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jan 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that in February 2015 white plumes and 19 instances of grayish-white plumes rose 200-600 m above the crater. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 2 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Five MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 9 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 16 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that eruption sounds were reported five times. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 16 | Audible Sounds | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that eruption sounds were reported five times. | [1] |
| 2015 Feb 16 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that nine explosions were heard. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that in March white plumes and 21 instances of grayish-white plumes rose 200-500 m above the crater. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 1 | Ashfall | – | 2 | – | Minor ashfall from one of the explosions fell on the observation post. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 1 | Audible Sounds | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported nine explosions were heard. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 15 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Mar 22 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Explosions were heard 30 times. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that there were 18 instances of grayish-white emissions during the first half of the month. Ash plumes rose 200-600 m above the crater 68 times throughout the month according to PVMBG. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 1 | Ashfall | – | 2 | – | Minor ashfall was reported on the flanks. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 1 | Ashfall | – | 2 | – | Ashfall was reported in Sawur and surrounding areas. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 1 | Audible Sounds | – | 2 | – | Explosions were heard 30 times. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 5 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Apr 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 May 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Ash plumes were reported 122 times, rising 200-500 m above the summit and drifting W, NW, and SW. | [1] |
| 2015 May 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Incandescent rock avalanches descended as far as 1 km in the Kembar ravine. | [1] |
| 2015 May 7 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 May 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Eleven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jun 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Ash emissions continued at the rate of a few per day, rising to 500 m above the summit. | [1] |
| 2015 Jun 10 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jun 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Ash emissions continued at the rate of a few per day, rising to 500 m above the summit. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | A few avalanches traveled 300-500 m S down the Besuk Kembar drainage during July-August. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 3 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 16 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that both white plumes and gray-to-brownish plumes were observed rising as high as 600 m above the crater and drifting W and E. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Jul 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Aug 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Ash events were reported 47 times, with plumes rising 100-600 m above the summit and drifting S. | [1] |
| 2015 Aug 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Rock avalanches were reported twice traveling 500 m down the S flank. | [1] |
| 2015 Aug 4 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Aug 29 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Sep 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Explosions with white-and-gray plumes had decreased to 45 for the month. | [1] |
| 2015 Sep 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Explosions with white-and-gray plumes had decreased to 45 for the month. They caused the plumes to rise 100-500 m above the summit and drift W and N. | [1] |
| 2015 Sep 10 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Sep 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Sep 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Thirty-two explosions occurred producing gray-to-white plumes that rose 200-500 m and drifted W. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Thirty-two explosions occurred producing gray-to-white plumes that rose 200-500 m and drifted W. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 7 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alert were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 23 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Oct 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Multiple near-daily MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Nov 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery reported continuous degassing and minor explosions from the lava dome. | [1] |
| 2015 Nov 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Dense gray-to-white ash plumes occurred eight times, rising 100-500 m and drifting W. | [1] |
| 2015 Nov 1 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery reported continuous degassing and minor explosions from the lava dome. | [1] |
| 2015 Nov 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Two incandescent avalanches traveled 500 m down the Besuk Kembar drainage. | [1] |
| 2015 Nov 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Incandescent material was observed nine times and traveled as far as 500 m down the S flank. | [1] |
| 2015 Dec 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Dense gray-to-white ash plumes occurred 20 times in December, rising 100-500 m and drifting W. | [1] |
| 2015 Dec 1 | Incandescent ejecta | – | 2 | – | Incandescent material was occasionally ejected above the crater. | [1] |
| 2015 Dec 10 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Five MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2015 Dec 26 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that there were 21 explosions recorded, generating dense gray plumes that rose 100-500 m above the crater and drifted E, N, and W. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported that there were 21 explosions recorded, generating dense gray plumes that rose 100-500 m above the crater and drifted E, N, and W. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 2 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Eight MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 9 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 22 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jan 29 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 7 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 13 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Based on analysis of satellite imagery and information from PVMBG, the Darwin VAAC reported that ash plume rose to altitudes of 6.7-7.9 km and drifted NE. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 13 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | According to a news article, a lava-dome collapse generated pyroclastic flows that traveled 4-5 km down the S and SE flanks. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 13 | Collapse | – | 2 | – | According to a news article, a lava-dome collapse generated pyroclastic flows that traveled 4-5 km down the S and SE flanks. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 13 | Pyroclastic flow | – | 2 | – | According to a news article, a lava-dome collapse generated pyroclastic flows that traveled 4-5 km down the S and SE flanks. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Feb 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Mar 3 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Mar 8 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Twelve MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Mar 24 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Five MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Mar 31 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Apr 9 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Apr 18 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Based on analysis of satellite images, the Darwin VAAC reported that an ash plume rose to an altitude of 4.3 km and drifted over 35 km NE. | [1] |
| 2016 Apr 18 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Apr 23 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Apr 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Six MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 May 9 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 May 18 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 May 25 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Based on analysis of satellite images, the Darwin VAAC reported that on 25 and 27 May ash plumes rose to an altitude of 4.3 km and drifted 25-40 km SW. | [1] |
| 2016 May 25 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jun 1 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Five MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jun 10 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Based on analysis of satellite images, the Darwin VAAC reported that a short-duration eruption generated an ash plume that rose to an altitude of 3.7 km and drifted over 25 km SW. | [1] |
| 2016 Jun 10 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jul 23 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Jul 26 | Incandescent ejecta | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery observed mild Strombolian activity from the crater. | [1] |
| 2016 Jul 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Aug 24 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2016 Sep 25 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | Volcano Discovery observed an incandescent lava flow 1,500 m down the ravine on the S slope. | [1] |
| 2016 Nov 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2017 Jan 9 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Based on analysis of satellite images and information from PVMBG, the Darwin VAAC reported that ash plumes rose to an altitude of 4 km and drifted N. | [1] |
2013 Oct 8 – 2013 Oct 18
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2013 Jun 4 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 1 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2013 Jun 18 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 1 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2013 Jun 27 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 1 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2013 Jul 4 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 1 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2013 Oct 18 | Ash Plume | – | 1 | – | The Darwin VAAC reported that a pilot saw a low-level ash plume from Semeru. | [1] |
| 2013 Nov 29 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 1 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
2011 May 13 – 2011 Sep 14
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2011 May 13 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | As observed during a photo expedition in May, tourists from Volcano Discovery reported that Semeru’s activity consisted of a few small to medium ash explosions per day, and over the previous weeks, it had been increasing. A photo from 13 May with an ash plume was posted on their website on 17 May 2011. | [1] |
| 2011 Jun 2 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2011 Jun 9 | Incandescent ejecta | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported eruptions of pyroclastic material on 9, 14, and 17 June. | [1] |
| 2011 Jun 15 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2011 Jul 1 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2011 Sep 1 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Tourists from Volcano Discovery traveling in East Java during 1-14 September reported on 15 September that an active lava dome was growing inside the crater and there were 3-4 eruptions (explosions with ash and steam) per day, and it seemed that the size and frequency of the eruptions was increasing over that time. | [1] |
| 2011 Sep 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Tourists from Volcano Discovery traveling in East Java during 1-14 September reported on 15 September that an active lava dome was growing inside the crater and there were 3-4 eruptions (explosions with ash and steam) per day, and it seemed that the size and frequency of the eruptions was increasing over that time. | [1] |
| 2011 Sep 1 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | Tourists from Volcano Discovery traveling in East Java during 1-14 September reported on 15 September that an active lava dome was growing inside the crater and there were 3-4 eruptions (explosions with ash and steam) per day, and it seemed that the size and frequency of the eruptions was increasing over that time. | [1] |
2011 Dec 29 – 2012 Jul 20
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2011 Dec 29 | Seismicity (volcanic) | – | 2 | – | Seismicity increased, and dense white and gray plumes rose as high as 600 m above the Jonggring Seloko crater. | [1] |
| 2011 Dec 29 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Dense white and gray plumes rose as high as 600 m above the Jonggring Seloko crater. | [1] |
| 2011 Dec 29 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | A 300-m-long lava flow was observed. | [1] |
| 2012 Jan 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Crater incandescence was observed and avalanches carried incandescent material 200-400 m away from the crater. | [1] |
| 2012 Jan 6 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | Dense gray-white plumes rose 600 m and preceded an explosion on 6 January 2012; the explosion was followed by summit incandescence. | [1] |
| 2012 Jan 6 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Dense gray-white plumes rose 600 m and preceded an explosion. | [1] |
| 2012 Jan 7 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | Repeated observations of incandescent material flowing up to 400 m SE toward the Besuk Kembar drainage were made during the rest of January. | [1] |
| 2012 Jan 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 1 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Dense gray-to-white plumes rose 100-500 m above Jongring Seloko crater and drifted W and N. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 1 | Pyroclastic flow | – | 2 | – | CVGHM reported that multiple pyroclastic flows traveled 500 and 2,500 m into the Besuk Kembar and Besuk Kobokan rivers (on the S flank). | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 1 | Incandescence | – | 2 | – | Incandescence was visible up to 50 m above the crater. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 2 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | A large explosion was reported. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 2 | Pyroclastic flow | – | 2 | – | Just after midnight, a pyroclastic flow traveled 300 m from the Jongring Seloko crater, and by mid-morning it had traveled farther, to 2.5 km from the crater. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 2 | VEI (Explosivity Index) | – | 2 | – | VEI 2 | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 5 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 8 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Seven MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Feb 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Sixteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Mar 27 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Apr 1 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | Observations indicated that the lava dome grew in April. | [1] |
| 2012 Apr 12 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Apr 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2012 May 9 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2012 Jul 18 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | Tourists with Volcano Discovery observed that the lava dome was active and growing slowly. They noted an area of incandescence visible at the SW part of the dome inside the half-open summit crater, and it was producing regular small to moderate ash explosions. | [1] |
| 2012 Jul 18 | Lava dome | – | 2 | – | Tourists with Volcano Discovery observed that the lava dome was active and growing slowly. They noted an area of incandescence visible at the SW part of the dome inside the half-open summit crater, and it was producing regular small to moderate ash explosions. | [1] |
| 2012 Jul 18 | Incandescence | – | 2 | – | Tourists with Volcano Discovery observed that the lava dome was active and growing slowly. They noted an area of incandescence visible at the SW part of the dome inside the half-open summit crater, and it was producing regular small to moderate ash explosions. | [1] |
2010 Jan 5 – 2010 Nov 29
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 2010 Jan 5 | Incandescence | – | 2 | – | Incandescence at the summit was observed. | [1] |
| 2010 Jan 21 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Feb 13 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Feb 20 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Feb 25 | Lava flow | – | 2 | – | PVMBG reported a new lava flow which by 28 February had traveled 750 m. | [1] |
| 2010 Feb 27 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Apr 25 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Thirteen MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 May 18 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 May 25 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jun 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jun 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jun 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jul 5 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jul 14 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jul 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Jul 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Four MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Aug 1 | Seismicity (volcanic) | – | 2 | – | CVGHM reported on that from August to October seismic activity at Semeru had increased. | [1] |
| 2010 Aug 6 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Five MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Aug 15 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Aug 24 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Aug 31 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Sep 1 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | During September incandescent avalanches traveled 400 m SE into the Besuk Kembar drainage on three occasions. | [1] |
| 2010 Sep 7 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Sep 16 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Sep 30 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Oct 1 | Incandescence | – | 2 | – | Incandescence from the crater was observed in October. | [1] |
| 2010 Oct 11 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Oct 18 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Nov 2 | Avalanche | – | 2 | – | Incandescent avalanches traveled 600 m E into Besuk Kembar on 2 November and 4 km into the Besuk Kembar and Besuk Bang (SSE) drainages on 4 November. | [1] |
| 2010 Nov 10 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Two MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Nov 18 | Ash Plume | – | 2 | – | The Darwin VAAC reported that ash plumes from Semeru rose to an altitude of 4.3 km and drifted 75-110 N and NW. | [1] |
| 2010 Nov 19 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | Three MODVOLC thermal alerts were issued. | [1] |
| 2010 Nov 28 | Thermal Anomaly | – | 2 | – | A MODVOLC thermal alert was issued. | [1] |
1967 Aug 31 – 2002
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1967 Aug 31 | Lava flow, lava dome, Ash, Mudflow, and Pyrocrastic Flow | – | 2 | – | SE area and Koboan, Rejali | [1],[4] |
| 1968 Jan | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-3] |
| 1968 Mar 8 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 5 victims | 2 | – | Glidik, Koboan, Rejali | [1-4] |
| 1973 Jan | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Besuk sat, koboan | [1-4] |
| 1974 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Liprak, Regoyo, Kembar, Bang, Rejali | [1-4] |
| 1976 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 133 Victims | 2 | – | Kembar and Lengkong | [1-4] |
| 1978 Jan – Sep | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 12 Victims | 2 | – | Glidik, Kembar, Lengkong, Liprak, Koboan | [1-4] |
| 1981 Mar 29 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 252 Victims | 2 | – | C.Lengkong, Kembar, Bang, SE 10 km; Glidik, S, 7 to 11 km, | [1-4] |
| 1981 May 14 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Besuk sat, tengga, tunggeng | [1-4] |
| 1985 May 10 | Mudflow | – | 2 | – | Tretes, Koboan, Kembar | [1],[4] |
| 1988 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Rejali, Tretes, Lengkong, Koboan | [1-4] |
| 1992 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 3 Victims | 2 | – | Vent area | [1-4] |
| 1994 Feb 3 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 8 Victims | 2 | – | Koboan, Lengkong, Kembar | [1-4] |
| 1996 May 5 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | [1-3] | |
| 1997 Sep 2 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 2 Tourist | 2 | – | SE 2 km, and Lengkong | [1-4] |
| 2000 Jul 27 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | 2 Volcanolopassed away | 2 | – | Vent area, Kembar, Koboan | [1-4] |
| 2002 | – | 2 | – | Vent area and scar; Bang, SSE, 9 km Supit near Pronojiwo, 750 m asl; Kembar, SSE, 1.5–4 km, avalanches | [1],[4] |
1950 Jul 23 – 1964 Dec 16
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1950 Jul 23 | Pyrocrastic flow, lava flow, lava dome, Ash, Incandescence | – | 2 | – | Besuk sat and Besuk Semut | [1],[4] |
| 1963 May 5 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Koboan, Lengkong (SE) and Besuk Semeut and Pancing € | [1-4] |
1946 Oct 29 – 1947 Jun
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1946 Oct 29 | Pyrocrastic flow, Lava dome, Ash, Blocks | – | 2 | – | Besuk sat and Besuk Semut | [1] |
1946 Feb – 1946 May
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1946 Feb | Pyrocrastic flow, Ash, Lapili, and Block | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
| 1946 May 7 | Pyrocrastic flow, Ash, Lapili, and Block | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1945 Jun 12 – 1945 Jun 18
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1945 Jun 12 – 1945 Jun 18 | Explosion, Ash, Flames |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1941 Sep 21 – 1942 Feb
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1941 Sep 21 – 1942 Feb | Explosion, Ash, Lava flow, Bombs |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1915
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1915 | Explosion, Mudflow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1913 Jun 23 – 1913 Jun 26
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1913 Jun 23 | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash, Mudflow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1912 Aug 28
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1912 Aug 28 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-4] |
1911 Nov 8 – 1911 Dec
1910 Nov 16 – 1911 Feb
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1910 Nov 16 | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1909 Sep – 1910 Mar 22
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1909 – 1910 Sep | Pyrocrastic Flow and Mudflow | 220 Victims | 2 | – | Lahar down to Lumajang City 35 km on East | [1],[4] |
1908 Jan – 1908 Dec
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1908 Jan | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1907 Jan 7 – 1907 Jan 10
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1908 Jan | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1905 Aug 4
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1905 Aug 4 | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1904 Jan 2 – 1904 Jan 16
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1904 Jan 2 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1903 Mar 26 – 1903 Jun
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1903 Mar 26 | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1901 Jan 29 – 1901 Jan 30
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1901 Jan 29 | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1900 Mar 29 – 1900 Apr 11
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1900 Mar 29 | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1899 Dec
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1899 Dec | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1899 Aug 11
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1899 Aug 11 | Explosion, Ash | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1899 Jan 17 – 1899 Mar 31
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1899 Jan 17 | Explosion, Ash, Earthquakes |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1898 Feb 23
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1898 Feb 23 | Explosion, Lava flow | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1897 Jan 1 – 1897 Jan 3
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1897 Jan 1 | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash, Blocks |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1896 May – 1896 Jun
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1896 May | Explosion, Mudflow | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1895 May 22 – 1895 Oct 1
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1895 May 22 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | Lava flow occurred on SE and E flank as far as 5 km | [1-6] |
1893 Dec 11 – 1894 Feb
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1893 Dec 11 | Explosion, Ash | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1893 Jan – 1893 May
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1893 Jan | Explosion, Ash | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1892 Mar – 1892 Apr
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1892 Mar | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1889 Jan – 1891 May 31
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1889 Jan | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash, Earthquakes |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1888 Feb – 1888 Oct
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1888 Feb | Explosion, Lava flow, Pyroclastic flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1887 Aug – 1887 Oct 11
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1887 Aug | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1887 Feb – 1887 Mar
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1887 Feb | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1886 Jan 25 – 1886 Aug 26
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1886 Jan 25 | Explosion, Lava flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1884 Dec 10 – 1885 Sep
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1884 Dec 10 – 1885 Apr 18 |
Lava flow, Avalanche, Ash, Mudflow | 70 – 85 Victims | 2 | – | – | [1],[4] |
1879
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1879 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-3] |
1878
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1878 | Explosion, Lava flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1877 Sep
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1877 Sep | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-3] |
1877 Apr
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1877 Apr | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1872 Oct 23
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1872 Oct 23 | Explosion, Ash, Earthquakes |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1867 Apr 15 – 1867 May
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1867 Apr 15 | Explosion, Ash, Blocks |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1865 Apr 15
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1865 Apr 15 | Explosion, Ash, Blocks, Lava flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1860 Apr – 1860 Jun
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1860 Apr | Explosion, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1857 Aug 13 – 1857 Sep
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1857 Aug 13 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-3] |
1856 Sep 10
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1856 Sep 10 | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1851 Jan
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1851 Jan | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1848 Aug 4
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1848 Aug 4 | Explosion, Lava flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1848 Feb
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1848 Feb | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1845 Jan – 1845 Jul
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1845 Jan | Explosion, Lava flow |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1844 Sep 25 – 1844 Sep 27
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1844 Sep 25 | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash |
– | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1842 Jan – 1842 Mar
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1842 Jan | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1838 Jul – 1838 Oct 18
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1838 Jul | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1836 Aug 3 – 1836 Aug 5
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explositivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1836 Aug 3 | Lava flows, Pyrocrastic Flows, and Ash (Typical Eruption of the Volcano) | – | 2 | – | – | [1-3] |
1832 Apr 18
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1832 Apr 18 | Explosion, Lava flow, Ash | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1830 Dec 15 – 1830 Dec 16
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1830 Dec 15 | Explosion, Ash | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1829 Feb
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1829 Feb | Explosion | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
1818 Nov 8
| Date | Event Type | Fatalities | VEI (Explosivity Index) | Level | Event Remarks | Reference |
| 1818 Nov 8 | Explosion, Lava flow | – | 2 | – | – | [1] |
Geomorphology
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Regional Stratigraphy
Tab Content
Structure
Tab Content
Reference
[1] Volcano.si.edu
[2] Basuki, A., Purnamasari, H. D., & Syahbana, D. K. (2023, August). The 2021 Semeru volcano eruption: An insight from visual, seismic, and deformation monitoring data. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1227, No. 1, p. 012030). IOP Publishing.
[3] Suhadha, A. G., & Harintaka, H. (2024). Multidimensional displacement analysis of Semeru Volcano, Indonesia following December 2021 eruption from multitrack InSAR observation. Earth Science Informatics, 1-14.
[4] Thouret, J. C., Lavigne, F., Suwa, H., Sukatja, B., & Surono. (2007). Volcanic hazards at Mount Semeru, East Java (Indonesia), with emphasis on lahars. Bulletin of Volcanology, 70, 221-244.
[5] Nakada, S., Maeno, F., Yoshimoto, M., Hokanishi, N., Shimano, T., Zaennudin, A., & Iguchi, M. (2019). Eruption scenarios of active volcanoes in Indonesia. Journal of Disaster Research, 14(1), 40-50.
[6] Thouret, J. C., Taillandier, M., Wavelet, E., Azzaoui, N., Santoni, O., & Tjahjono, B. (2023). Semeru volcano, Indonesia: measuring hazard, exposure and response of densely populated neighbourhoods facing persistent volcanic threats. Natural Hazards, 1-49.